Self- Reference Effect Experiment - 629 Words

Studies have shown the processing of information and memory is best stored when information is made relevant and important to the self. This theory is presented in Cunningham, Turk, MacDonald, and Macrae’s â€Å"Yours or Mine? Ownership and Memory† (2008). Cunningham et al. presented the idea of ‘self-reference effect’ in their article, stating words or other stimuli presented to participants will be easier to recall according to level of relevance to said participant. Another article founded on this theory is Symons and Blair’s â€Å"The Self-Reference Effect in Memory: A Meta-Analysis† (1997). Symons et al. reviewed participants and their propensity to â€Å"relate material to the self.† The following experiment performed is a replication of the classic experiment by Roger, Kuiper, and Kirker (1977) in which experimenters had participants process and categorize words quickly, later recalling as many words exhibited in the experiment a s possible. This collection of articles each wanted to exhibit the phenomenon of self-reflected thought processes and further explains human memory. The initial hypothesis for this experiment is that the words that recalled personal experiences for the participant will be remembered best. Method Participants Participants for this experiment included 194 students at UCF who are enrolled in PSY 3213 Research Methods in Psychology, roughly ages 18-22. Materials and Procedures This experiment included the use of Dell Computers. Students satShow MoreRelatedIs The Self Reference Effect More Effective On Children s Memory Rather Than Adults?1733 Words   |  7 PagesIs the Self Reference Effect More Effective On Children’s Memory Rather Than Adults? Madison Herley Professor Cooke General Psychology 101 April 21, 2016 Abstract The study will investigate the self reference effect with two different age groups. The two age groups will be young and older adults, trying to obtain material. The first group is told to relate that information to themselves or past experiences and, the second group is only told to review the material given. The purpose of this experimentRead More Psychological Research Report on Memory Essay1467 Words   |  6 Pagesmemory and many different attempts at defining a specific method of encoding that will lead to greater recall. In this experiment subjects are asked to do a semantic task on a word related to them and an orthographic task in which they analyze the letter in the word. The results of the experiment indicate that the words which where encoded semantically and are related to the self have greater recall. INTRODUCTION In the last half century several theories have emerged with regard to the best modelRead MoreTypes Of Norms : Descriptive Norms1501 Words   |  7 Pagesof the group as a whole. As humans we have an innate desire to obtain a social identity by associating ourselves with a particular group; this enhances our self-esteem and pride (part of Tajfel’s social identity theory). This leads to the creation of ‘in-group’ vs. ‘out-group’ behaviour, such that an individual will strive to increase the self-image of his own group over other groups. This, among other behaviour, could cause the individual to see the norms of its own group as elevated, leading themRead MoreBurgess, Melinda, and Sandra Burpo. The Effect of Music Videos on College Students1100 Words   |  5 Pagesand Sandra Burpo. The Effect of Music Videos on College Students Perceptions of Rape. College Student Journal 46.4 (2012): Academic Search Complete. Web. 27 Feb. 2014. Basically, the article is divided into three parts. The first part grouped evidence from several studies about the widespread of women’s portrayal as degraded sex objects in music videos of most types. Then the second part discuss the experiment which was done to examineRead MoreConsumer Behavior Case Study-Reference Groups800 Words   |  4 Pages* This research studies reference groups as a source of brand associations, linked to peoples’ mental representation of self needs. This is conceptualized at an aggregate level in terms of self-brand connections. Reference Groups: Social groups that are important to a consumer and against which he/she compares himself/herself. * Member group: a reference group to which an individual belongs * Aspiration Group: A reference group to which an individual wishes to belong * Consumers useRead MoreExperimental Research Designs Essay1052 Words   |  5 Pagesindependent variable to observe its effect the dependent variable. When conducting an experiment the researcher will use random assignment of the participants into a control group and the other the group that is being experimented on. The researcher will place the control group in a controlled environment, while the other will be placed in a cause and effect situation and the results will be determined from the experiment (True Experimental Design, 2012). A laboratory experiment is a research study conductedRead MoreSelf Perception Theory1700 Words   |  7 PagesSelf perception Table of contents Serial N ° | List of Contents | Page N ° | 01 | Executive summary | 03 | 02 | Theories | 04 | 03 | Techniques | 05 | 04 | Decision making | 06 | 05 | References | 08 | â€Å"Self perception theory† Executive summary:- Self-perception theory (SPT) is an account of attitude change developed by psychologist Daryl Bem. It asserts that people develop their attitudes by observing their behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused them. The theory is counterintuitiveRead MoreThe Effects Of Maternal Behavior On Mother Rats Essay1466 Words   |  6 PagesTwo scholarly articles compared the different effects maternal behavior can have on mother rats later on in their lifetime. A maternal behavior can be defined as an act of love and caring toward one’s young (2012). Memory, and the rats’ ability to learn a response were tested through two different experiments. Learning was tested by a classical conditioning approach. Classical condition was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov. The overall concept of classical conditioning is when a response is elicitedRead More Consciousness and the Placebo Effect Essay1741 Words   |  7 PagesConsciousness and the Placebo Effect In controlled studies, experimenters use placebos as medium to compare the efficacy of a drug. Double-blind controlled studies provide information on whether a drug is effective or if it is not better than placebo. The results of double-blind studies usually depict the latter. Rarely are drugs found to be significantly more effective than placebo because of the placebo effect. The phenomenal effectiveness of the placebo in controlled experiments is mind boggling. ExperimentersRead MoreThe Effect Of Doll Tests On Brown V. Board Education Decision1052 Words   |  5 Pages EFFECT OF DOLL TESTS ON BROWN V. BOARD EDUCATION DECISION BRADLEY A. SMITH JOHNSON COUNTY COMMUNITY COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Date Introduction Doctor’s Kenneth and Mamie Clark were psychologists who conducted several experiments in the 1940s. The most famous of these experiments were colloquially known as doll tests. They were aimed at studying the psychological effects of discrimination or segregation on African American children. In this test, the psychologists used

Itinerary for the Tourists Stays in the City of Venice Assignment

Essays on Itinerary for the Tourists Stays in the City of Venice Assignment The paper "Itinerary for the Tourists Stays in the City of Venice" is an amazing example of an assignment on tourism. Venice is one of the most attractive tourist destinations in the world; it is the wealthiest city in terms of cultural heritage as it’s the most densely populated in cultural assets per square kilometer. Two groups of tourists are to take a six-day vacation in Venice and the tour agency Paradise Travel tours is in charge of organizing the excursion the two groups of tourists will take. Having recently engaged the services of the tour agency the two couples expect the agency to arrange a tour that will suit their life values and thus bring about satisfaction. The tour agency would also like to make sure their customers are happy with their services and would come back for their next trip abroad.To make sure its tours appeal to the different tourist groups the agency serves, the agency has segmented its market according to the VALs segmentation. According to this segmentation approach, couples A and B can be grouped into the young optimist market segment and the visible achievement market segment respectively. According to Chitty et al (2011), the young optimist is an outgoing individual who is starting out in life; he is either in school or just started working. Individuals from this segment like to have fun and travel in a small group. They like to engage in high adrenaline activities that give them a rush, this includes activities such as swimming, beach volleyball, backpacking, cycling, surfing, and other competitive sports. In contrast, the visible achievement segment contains individuals who have made it in the socials ladder who are looking for quality services and are willing to pay premium prices for them. This segment is used to living a luxurious life traveling in its own high-end vehicles and living the best life that money can afford.Justification for Choosing the Excursions for the couplesThe seven P’s of the marketing mix of service are important while marketing service in any sector of the global economy. These seven P’s of the marketing mix of service include Product, Place, Price, and Promotion, Process and People and Physical evidence. In this section of the report, we look at the P’s of the marketing mix that influenced the decision to include the various activities in the itinerary for each of the couplesThe following are the reasons why the above places were chosen to visit in Venice. As we take a look at this, we are going to use the P’s of marketing to consider why some places were chosen. Among the P’S that have been chosen for this discussion are price, place, people promotion and product.Couple A Day 1: Arrival at VeniceThe couple will arrive at night hence they are expected to be exhausted from the long journey. To calm them down there has been a reserved dinner for two at a romantic dinner at Hotel Excelsior Venice which is located near the beach in Venice’s lido. This hotel has been chosen as dinner can be served along the beach as they enjoy the cool breeze from the beach (Hotels.com 2012c).

There is a Hell, Believe me Ive Seen It, There is A Heaven, Lets Keep it A Secret by Bring me The H free essay sample

Perhaps being one of the biggest Bring Me The Horizon fans, I was desperately trying to pull in money from every which way to be able to buy their new album the night it came out 2 days ago. So there I was, at midnight on my laptop counting down the minutes until I could hit download. 12:01 came around and at that moment my mouse nearly exploded as I clicked in the download button next to the album cover, bearing a man wearing a golden mask and split down the middle, one side wearing a white cloak and holding up a key on a key ring and the other wearing a black cloak holding up an intricately patterned knife. The side of the man with the black cloak is covered in cuts and bruises. Right down the middle of the man is a keyhole on his chest. I personally think this is one of the most creative album covers I’ve seen in a very long time. We will write a custom essay sample on There is a Hell, Believe me Ive Seen It, There is A Heaven, Lets Keep it A Secret by Bring me The H or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page At about 12:07, much to my parents annoyance, I plugged my ipod into my stereo and blasted the album at full volume. The first song is one of the best songs on the album, in my opinion, named Crucify Me. It starts with a light guitar picking tune, putting the mood into a more light tone. When it fades and the harder and faster music comes in, it’s much in the same tone as the beginning guitar but much harder. The deep vocals start it out and then come in the more distinctive and high vocals of Oli Skyes. It levels with Oli continuing to sing through the cut up beat. That continues for about 30 seconds, before he sings â€Å"There is a Hell, Believe me I’ve Seen It, There is a Heaven, Lets Keep it a Secret†, which is also the album name. One of the more unusual parts of the song is when the vocals drop and a chorus of what sounds like children singing the same line, but distorted with techno rifts and drops. Crucify Me continues much like this, and altogether is one of the best songs by Bring Me The Horizon. Continuing to the next song, Anthem, skips the soft intro and drops full on into the beat. A drum tap starts the song and then pulls into hard vocals and the melody. The song continues much in the same manner, with rifts and more low vocals from the back vocalist. The ending of this song is the part that really sticks with you: It falls into a more light tone, barely being able to hear the music at all. You hear a mans voice in the background but can’t fully make out the words. But the volume of the voice overpowers the soft music and you hear a man ask someone about the â€Å"special feelings† they are having. Then a woman’s voice comes in, saying â€Å"I feelthat my heart is being touched by Christ.† Right as she says Christ, the song cuts of abruptly and the next song progresses. The next song is called It Never Ends. The cool thing about this song is you can really feel the sadness pouring from the notes. It starts into a melody mixed with stringed instruments and drums, then drops into a light tone and you hear Oli Skyes sing a voice full of pain. After his part is done, the vocals become a choir singing behind the beat of guitars and drums. Oli comes in yet again and the song continues. A small part of the song drops into a chiming melody and then comes back into Oli. The next song on the album is called F*ck. I ca’t say much about this song without insulting somebody, but if anyone likes Josh Franceschi, this song features him. I personally love this guy and think he’s a great musician. Next song is called Don’t Go. It starts with violins and snare in a sad tone. It basically tells a story from Oli Skyes perception, and is a wonderful song if youre in the mood for light tones and whining vocals. The rest of the album can’t be shown because I’ve run out of room.. but if anybody really wants me to write a part two to this just comment telling me to and I’ll do it.

The Extreme Burden and Requirements for Childbirth Essays

The Extreme Burden and Requirements for Childbirth Upon reading from The New Oxford Annotated Bible so far it has been a very brutal beginning. One book in particular has stuck in my mind making me wonder sometime why even create a woman? Leviticus, it sets a no nonsense feel about how the Levites are truly in debt to God for their liberation from Pharos tight grip. The development of the Ten Commandments , worship rituals, holiday s , animal sacrifices , and how to carefully prepare the offerings from animal s to tithing. This book is jam packed with insanely strict rules sent from God . The Commandments are seemingly impossible to live by, particularly for the women at this time. With God' s wrath and death for anything considered a sin looming over your head, I would think it would be terrifying especially if you have broken one of these rules. "The LORD spoke to Moses, saying: Speak to the people of Israel, saying: If a woman conceives and bears a male child, she shall be c eremoniously unclean seven days; as at the time of her menstruation, she shall be unclean. On the eighth day the flesh of the foreskin shall be circumcised. Her time of blood purification shall be thirty-three days; she shall not touch any holy thing, or come into the sanctuary, until the days of her purification are completed. If she bears a female child, she shall be unclean two weeks, as in her menstruation; her time of blood purification shall be sixty-six days (Leviticus 12: 1-5 OAB )." Child bearing would have not been easy at this time. A woman, after giving birth may as well just stay in a room by herself until she is dubbed clean again. If you could not touch anything that is holy, how could you prepare Sabbath dinner, be around your husband or anyone who was considered holy at the time. It is almost as if child bearing was sh ameful or even a sin. How could this be if you were married under God's watchful eye and he blesses the people to procreate? On top of not being able to touch anything, if you have a girl the purification time is doubled! It is really difficult to process in my mind that the Levite women had to carry this shameful burden when it is the natural process of life. After the time of her purification a woman must go and offer a sacrifice to become clean once again. Again, another hitch in the road for women in what is a so called natural process. "When the days of her purification are completed, whether for a son or daughter, she shall bring to the priest at the entrance of the tent of meeting a lamb in its first year for a burnt offering, and a pigeon or a turtledove for a sin offering. He shall offer it before the LORD and make atonement on her behalf; then she shall be clean from her flow of blood. This is a law for her who bears a child, male or female (Leviticus 12: 6-7)." Not only are we calling childbirth a sin, but now we must sacrifice two innocent animals to make things right with Him. God seems not care for the women in this time period due to all these even more harsh, strict laws she must follow. Reading the Old Testament is rough. From the killing to the elevated standards the Levites and others who follow LORD God had difficult tasks to uphold in His name. Looking at the passages and understanding God liberated His people there are at God's mercy and must hold their end of the bargain for their freedom. To be honest, to me being a slave working from sun up to sun down for some self-righteous pharaoh who could care less about the people who built his empire would be worse than following God's law. Freedom is everything. Work Cited Coogan , Michael D. Editor. Full Revised Fourth Edition: The New Oxford Annotated Bible New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha. Ed. 4 th ed . New York: Oxford UP, 2010. Print.

The Member of the Wedding Essay Example For Students

The Member of the Wedding Essay The Member of the Wedding by Carson McCullers is the story of an adolescent girl who triumphs over loneliness and gains maturity through an identity that she creates for herself in her mind. It is with this guise that twelve year old Frankie Addams begins to feel confident about herself and life. The author seems to indicate that one can feel good about oneself through positive thinking regardless of reality. The novel teaches that ones destiny is a self-fulfilled prophesy, seeing ones self in a certain light oftentimes creates an environment where one might become that which one would like to be. We will write a custom essay on The Member of the Wedding specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The world begins to look new and beautiful to Frankie when her older brother Jarvis returns from Alaska with his bride-to-be, Janice. The once clumsy Frankie, forlorn and lonely, feeling that she was a member of nothing in the world now decides that she is going to be the member of the wedding. Frankie truly believes that she is going to be an integral part of her brothers new family and becomes infatuated with the idea that she will leave Georgia and live with Jarvis and Janice in Winter Hill. In her scheme to be part of this new unit, she dubs herself F. Jasmine so that she and the wedding couple will all have names beginning with the letters J and a. Her positive thinking induces a euphoria which contributes to a rejection of the old feeling that the old Frankie had no we to claim. Now all this was suddenly over with and changed. There was her brother and the bride, and it was as though when first she saw them something she had known inside of her: They are the we of me. Being a m ember of the wedding will, she feels, connect her irrevocably to her brother and his wife. Typical of many teenagers, she felt that in order to be someone she has to be a part of an intact, existing group, that is, Jarvis and Janice. The teen years are known as a time of soul-searching for a new and grown up identity. In an effort to find this identity teens seek to join a group. Frankie, too, is deperate for Jarvis and Janices adult acceptance. Frankie is forced to spend the summer with John Henry, her six year old cousin, and Berenice Brown, her black cook. It is through her interactions with these two characters that the reader perceives Frankies ascent from childhood. Before Jarvis and Janice arrive, Frankie is content to play with John Henry. When she becomes F. Jasmine and an imagined we of the couple, she feels too mature to have John Henry sleep over, preferring, instead, to occupy her time explaining her wedding plans to strangers in bars, a behavior she would not have considered doing before gaining this new confidence. When F. Jasmine tells her plans to Berenice, the cook immediately warns her that Jarvis and Janice will not want her to live with them. F. Jasmine smugly ignores the cooks warning that you just laying yourself this fancy trap to catch yourself in trouble. The adolescent feels confident and cocky, refusing to believe that her plot is preposterous. After the wedding and the shattering reality that Fra nces (as she is now known) faces, it is evident, from the fact that their refusal doesnt crush her, that she has truly turned herself around, and that her maturity is an authentic and abiding one. At the conclusion of the story, the now confident Frances is able to plan a future for herself, by herself, which includes becoming a great writer. She, further, finds a sympathetic friend who becomes the other half of her new we.Carson McCullers brilliantly portrays a teenage girls maturation through a fabricated feeling of belonging, which ultimately leads to a true belonging. The reader sees how the girl grows from a childish Frankie, to a disillusioned F. Jasmine, and eventually to a matured Frances. When F. Jasmine questions Berenice as to why it is illegal to change ones name without consent of the court, the cook insightfully responds, You have a name and one thing after another happens to you, and you behave in various ways and do various things, so that soon the name begins to hav e a meaning. No matter how we might change externals, it is only when our innermost feelings are altered that we truly change and grow. The Member of the Wedding Essay Example For Students The Member of the Wedding Essay The Member ofthe WeddingThe Member of the Wedding by Carson McCullersis the story of an adolescent girl who triumphs over loneliness and gainsmaturity through an identity that she creates for herself in her mind. It is with this guise that twelve year old Frankie Addams begins to feelconfident about herself and life. The author seems to indicate that onecan feel good about oneself through positive thinking regardless of reality. The novel teaches that ones destiny is a self-fulfilled prophesy, seeingones self in a certain light oftentimes creates an environment where onemight become that which one would like to be. We will write a custom essay on The Member of the Wedding specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The world begins to look new and beautifulto Frankie when her older brother Jarvis returns from Alaska with his bride-to-be,Janice. The once clumsy Frankie, forlorn and lonely, feeling that she wasa member of nothing in the world now decides that she is going to be themember of the wedding. Frankie truly believes that she is going to bean integral part of her brothers new family and becomes infatuated withthe idea that she will leave Georgia and live with Jarvis and Janice inWinter Hill. In her scheme to be part of this new unit, she dubs herselfF. Jasmine so that she and the wedding couple will all have names beginningwith the letters J and a. Her positive thinking induces a euphoria whichcontributes to a rejection of the old feeling that the old Frankie hadno we to claim. Now all this was suddenly over with and changed. Therewas her brother and the bride, and it was as though when first she sawthem something she had known inside of her: They are the we of me. Beinga member of the w edding will, she feels, connect her irrevocably to herbrother and his wife. Typical of many teenagers, she felt that in orderto be someone she has to be a part of an intact, existing group, that is,Jarvis and Janice. The teen years are known as a time of soul-searchingfor a new and grown up identity. In an effort to find this identity teensseek to join a group. Frankie, too, is deperate for Jarvis and Janicesadult acceptance. Frankie is forced to spend the summer withJohn Henry, her six year old cousin, and Berenice Brown, her black cook. It is through her interactions with these two characters that the readerperceives Frankies ascent from childhood. Before Jarvis and Janice arrive,Frankie is content to play with John Henry. When she becomes F. Jasmineand an imagined we of the couple, she feels too mature to have John Henrysleep over, preferring, instead, to occupy her time explaining her weddingplans to strangers in bars, a behavior she would not have considered doingbefore gaining this new confidence. When F. Jasmine tells her plans to Berenice,the cook immediately warns her that Jarvis and Janice will not want herto live with them. F. Jasmine smugly ignores the cooks warning that youjust laying yourself this fancy trap to catch yourself in trouble. Theadolescent feels confident and cocky, refusing to believe that her plotis preposterous. After the wedding and the shattering reality that Frances(as she is now known) faces, it is evident, from the fact that their refusaldoesnt crush her, that she has truly turned herself around, and that hermaturity is an authentic and abiding one. At the conclusion of the story,the now confident Frances is able to plan a future for herself, by herself,which includes becoming a great writer. She, further, finds a sympatheticfriend who becomes the other half of her new we.Carson McCullers brilliantly portrays ateenage girls maturation through a fabricated feeling of belonging, whichultimately leads to a true belonging. The reader sees how the girl g rowsfrom a childish Frankie, to a disillusioned F. Jasmine, and eventuallyto a matured Frances. When F. Jasmine questions Berenice as to why it isillegal to change ones name without consent of the court, the cook insightfullyresponds, You have a name and one thing after another happens to you,and you behave in various ways and do various things, so that soon thename begins to have a meaning. No matter how we might change externals,it is only when our innermost feelings are altered that we truly changeand grow.

Infection and its prevention Essay Example

Infection and its prevention Essay Example Infection and its prevention Essay Infection and its prevention Essay Infection and its prevention have been a prime concern of mankind for a long time. Infection is a condition that results when a microorganism is able to invade the body, multiply and cause injurious effect or diseases. (McCall Tankersley, 2007:71) Infection control therefore refers to policies and procedures used to minimize the risk of spreading infections, especially in hospitals and human or animal health care facilities. The purpose of this is to reduce the occurrence of infectious diseases. The aim of this essay is to look at how infection control and the theatre environment impact on a patient undergoing surgery. The first part of the essay looks at infection control in the hospital setting in general; touching on issues such as hospital acquired infection like Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) and Clostridium Difficile (CD). Then the essay delves into the design of the surgical theatre and how it impacts on patients; it further talks about surgical etiquette placing much emphasis on hand washing as this is the first defence in preventing transmission of pathogen (Radford et al, 2004). Finally a conclusion is drawn on all the issues raised and their impact on the patient undergoing surgery. In the past, surgery would have been performed in a convenient location such as the patients home or a hospital ward with only basic infection control in place (Essex-Lopresti 1999). In Phillips (2004) describes the process for preparing the room as rudimentary, amounting to little more than removing furniture and non essential items and boiling linen, perhaps fumigation if time allows. Today, most surgery takes place in operating theatres that are specially designed for that purpose. There are two types of infection, the endogenous and exogenous infection. Endogenous infection occurs when microorganisms that normally exist harmlessly in one part of an individual to become pathogen, whereas exogenous infection happens when microorganisms from other source or from other person, object, animal or the environment (Woodhead 2005). Infection control refers to policies and procedures used to minimise the risk of spreading infection especially in hospitals. Nosocomial or hospital acquired infection (HAI) occur in approximately 5% of all hospital patients. The longer a patient stays in hospital, the higher the risk of getting HAI and sometimes even leading to death. There are many reasons why patients infected with HAI: Firstly weak immune system which makes them more vulnerable to infection due to patient sickness or treatment. Secondly, infection agent can be introduced to the patient by medical procedures and thirdly, on admission with infectable disease agent, patient can transfer diseases to a patient or patient to staff or visitor (Jones, 2008). HAI has, over the past few years dominated the media with its coverage of the superbugs, in particular MRSA and CD. A HAI or nosocomial is that which is acquired or develops as a result of treatment while the patient hospitalised for more than 48 hours and who did not have signs and symptoms of such infection on admission. Radford et al (2004) cited the research of Emmerson et al (1996) 9% of patients admitted to hospital acquire HAI from surgical wound infection after hospital discharge. MRSA has the ability to resist to one or more conventional antibiotics. Study suggests many people are carriers of MRSA but are colonised in their nose or back of their throats and on their normal flora. Report from BBC news (2005) stated that about 100,000 get infected with MRSA each year when they get admitted into hospital. The only way health care workers can reduce this infection is; a good hand washing between patients, a good standard hygiene in hospital and patients with MRSA treated in a highly isolated as much as possible. The operating theatre is designed in accordance by national and processional guidelines as described by Woodhead et al (2005). Each department is divided into three zones, the outer or dirty zone which is unrestricted area where normal clothing can be worn; it contains the entrance to changing areas and usually has access to remove theatre waste. The clean or semi-restricted zones are the staff changing rooms, anaesthetic and recovery rooms and sterile supplies. Access is restricted and all personnel and patients have to wear theatre attire. There is exception sometimes to patients that need support, such as children, mental ill patients or translators to the anaesthetic room. The sterile or restricted zones include the operating theatre, preparation rooms and the scrub areas. Surgical attire and possible masks will need to be worn at all times (Davey Ince 2004). Sterile areas should avoid overcrowding by theatre staff to reduce the risk of accidental contamination to sterile instruments and layout. To reduce airborne contamination, movement of staff and patient should be kept to a minimum. This helps to reduce airborne bacteria from entering the operating theatre (Woodhead 2005). Ventilation, temperature, humidity and airborne contamination have an important role in the design of a good operating theatre. In order to control the movement of air, the operating department requires specialised ventilation system. Usually the system employed in ventilating modern operating departments are laminar airflow (LAF) technology and positive pressure (PP) systems; these are in theory designed to reduce surgical site infections. The theatre is particularly arranged in a way so that air pressure is filtered moving air from clean to less clean areas and this continues when the theatre room is not in use. This is in place to reduce the airborne contamination, reduce expired anaesthetic gases and to control temperature and humidity, thus reducing and minimising bacterial growth. Adequate ventilation in theatre can be achieved by properly closing theatre doors, windows are well sealed, ceiling solid and the floor impermeable to washable material with no gaps or cracks and cove red joints where it meets the wall. Also shelving should be kept to a minimum (Weaving P, et al 2008). In orthopaedic theatre the air is ultraclean. These system are used when the risk and consequences to developing infection are greater. Ultra clean air, provided by the laminar flow systems, is designed to move particle free air over the aseptic operating field in one direction; it can be in vertically or horizontally sweeping away particle in its path. These canopies have the capacity to provide up to 400 to 500 air change per hour and can reduce the incidents of surgical site infection ,so together with good practice and the use of prophylactic antibiotics, the impact of surgery upon the patient should be favourable (Woodhead et al 2005) . 37à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ C and high humidity is the optional where most bacteria reproduce, to keep a theatre room free from bacteria the temperature should be between 20 to 24oc and humidified air levels of 50 to60%, this help to suppress bacteria growth, also help create a good impact upon the surgical patient, as infection rates are considerably lower (Davey and Ince 2004). Infants, children and burnt patient need a warmer temperature to avoid hypothermia, therefore each operating theatre have its own controls for regulating the temperature (Mangum 2001). There are two types of lighting found in theatre, the laminar lighting used to light the operating theatre and auxiliary and the surgical lighting. Both harbour microorganisms on it surfaces due to the movement and activities of staff in the operating theatre (Phillips 2004). This should be clean regularly to reduce the risk of infection. The theatre must be damp dusted before the first case of the day, and it is essential to clean and disinfect all contaminated areas of the theatre at the end of each case (Mangum, 2001) Infection control as defined earlier as policies and procedures use to minimize the risk of spreading infection, staff do not always go by this policies and guidelines. For example policies on air movement in the department, normally doors between the anaesthetic room and theatre are mostly left open by staff therefore affecting the positive pressure from working effectively. Staff need constant trainings and made aware of updated policies. These measures will help to control infection. According to Woodhead et al (2005), 300 million skin squames are shed per day and about 10% of this have microorganisms of which smaller particles stay as airborne for some hours. Some big particles may rest on work surfaces, furniture and equipment. 37% of airborne microbial contamination can be reduced if in every 3 minutes air is changed in the theatre. Different type of waste should be separated and disposed of in the right way. All waste known, or considered to cause disease in humans or other living organisms is considered infectious waste (DH, 2006). In the authors trust yellow is the colour coding for clinical waste which can cause a risk of infection or can be hazardous. Green bags for the linens. All waste bags should not be more than three quarters full (Davey Ince, 2004) and it is the duty of the staff to ensure that and dispose off in the appropriate manner to meet the requirement of the control of substances hazardous to health regulation (COSHH). Maintaining a safe and clean environment is essential for a good impact upon surgical patients, but staff themselves can be a source of microbial contaminated (Green et al, 2003). Staffs are screened by their occupational health department. They are annually screened for such infections as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B.; this screening is mandatory and is design to protect patients from exposure from infected staff. Microorganisms are shed from exposed skin, hair and mucus membranes, so to achieve a sterile field and to reduce infection for both patients and staff; staff need to wear appropriate clothing, prepare patients, use sterile equipment and eliquette during surgery. According to Radford et al (2004), every staff working within the theatre context needs to change into suit and trousers as classed as personal protective equipment (PPE) made from cotton fabric to reduce skin cells to the surroundings. Other PPE such as footwear, mask, eye protection etc. are also worn by staff as an infection control measure during surgery. Hospital Acquired Infections may not be eradicated but many outbreaks can be prevented through effective hand washing. Transient microorganisms are easily removed during hand washing therefore it is one of the most important procedures to prevent the spread of infection (Woodhead Wicker 2005). Hand antisepsis started in the 1860 by Joseph Lister. He realised decay is caused by microorganism and it can be prevented by disinfecting the clinical environment and all equipment with carbolic acid. It also included staff having their hands washed in a solution of 5% carbolic acid before undertaking surgery. Other development on surgical hand antisepsis occurred including scrubbing the hands and arms with a brush where the term scrub comes from. Also introduction of alcohol rubs in the late 1990s which contain antiseptic agent such as chlorehexidine gluconate alcohol solution which when rubbed on the hands does not need rinsing (Tanner 2008). Hand washing takes place before and after patient contact, following removal of protective clothing, immediately following contamination with blood or body fluids and after handling contaminated or potentially contaminated articles (Davey and Ince 2004, p39). This hand washing is a form of standard precautions for all staff to practice since staff cannot tell which patient is contaminated; therefore it is one of the most important procedures to prevent the spread of infection. Healthcare workers handling patient with their catheter, bed linen, wound, disposal of linen and waste come in contact with microorganisms. Also staff or practitioners caring for MRSA patients can have the pathogen on their skin for a few hours, this means it can transfer to another patient or staff easily. During these times, hand washing is vital to help stop the spread of infection. Surgical hand scrubbing gets rid of transient microorganisms which help to minimise the number of resident microorganisms in the recent study of Tanner 2008. Before hand scrub, all jewellery with the exception of single plain band must be removed. False nails and nail polish is not acceptable, since they harbour pathogens as studied by Heddewick et al (2000). Aqueous antiseptic solution such as Chlorhexidine gluconate and providone-iodine are efficient in removing transient organisms and reducing resident organisms to a safe level. Frequent hand wash minimise a low bacterial count under gloves which is accepted by all healthcare workers. To start effective hand scrub, temperature of the water must be checked; also arms and hands must be wet before applying anti-microbial solution. The hands and arms are washed from fingertips to the elbows and hands are held higher than elbows in order to prevent microorganisms dropping back to the fingertips. There is no agreed time for how long a surgical hand wash should last, but between 2 5 minutes have been vouched for by most researchers as enough and effective. Hands should be properly dry. Alcohol based hand rubs are also effective for use between patient contact. When used, the right technique should be employed to ensure it covers the relevant areas and left to dry (Woodhead et al 2005). Sterile gowns are worn after hand scrub to prevent bacteria from scrub staff to the surroundings or operating site, thus reducing surgical side infection (SSI) (Radford et al ,2004). Gloves must be put on using the closed gloving technique, not touched by the staff members bare hands. During orthopaedic operation, double gloving is recommended as any perforations will be highlighted and sterility will not be compromised. Surgical instrument and sterile equipment are prepared in the preparation room just before use, thus minimising the risk of contamination from airborne microbes. Patients are then positioned on to the table before a scrub nurse wheels the trolley into the operating area (Davey and Ince, 2004). A patients skin around the incision site is disinfected to reduce the number of bacteria present so as to reduce the risk of endogenous infections. The most effective antiseptic are those which are alcohol based. This has to be left on the skin to evaporate before draping begins (Weaving et al, 2008). The rationale behind this is to reduce the natural flora from getting into the incision and avoiding the patient contracting SSI. The rest of the patient is covered by draping which comes in disposable or reusable; this is to provide a sterile field in which the operating team can work without risk of contaminating themselves or the instrument. Draping start from the incision site working out towards the peripheries and should not be removed until dressing applied and surgery completed (Radford et al, 2004). Infection can not be totally eliminated and has serious consequences for the patient; however the risk of contracting infection can be reduced by adhering to infection control procedures and policies such as effective hand washing, wearing the appropriate personal protecting equipment. The design of the operating department also plays an important role in the success of controlling infection. Ventilation system needs to be working effectively to achieve its use; temperature and humidity parameters need constant checking. The continuous education of staff about theatre policies and regular update of the policies will go a long way to help reduce infection in theatre.

InTERNATIONAL STUDIES IN BUSINESS Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

InTERNATIONAL STUDIES IN BUSINESS - Assignment Example Conventional theory argues that liberation in trade should benefit the developing countries more than it benefitted the developed countries because globalisation is supposed to assist the countrys joining the bigger economies have access to their markets. On the contrary, it is the developed countries which have been gaining instead. On April 10, 2006, immediately after the director general had announced that they were planning to implement the Doha strategy some countries like U.S started demanding benefits for its own economy in case they provide aid to LDCs. I agree; WTO is meant to improve comprative advantage and hence increase international trade. WTO has made progressive in balancing trade between developed countries and developing countries, however, for globalization to be achieved, WTO will have to lower export tarrrifs for LCDs. Also developed countries should provide a good political